Nature And Nurture On Neural And Cognitive Development

Nature And Nurture On Neural And Cognitive Development Throughout history, an ongoing debate has taken place regarding whether the development of certain aspects of an individuals life are affected more through nature or nurture. Those that argue for nature believe that genes influence an individuals development. Those that believe in nurtures influence claim that an individuals experience has more of an effect upon an adolescents temperament. Recently, researchers have uncovered evidence that it is not only nature or nurture that influences development, but a complex combination of both. This manuscript will attempt to cover some of the factors that influence an adolescents neural, cognitive, and emotional development. The degree to which nature and nurture influence these particular aspects of an individuals life will also be discussed. Lastly, this manuscript will briefly explore the possibility of genetics and environment off setting deficiencies in the one another. Discussion Neural Development One aspect of human development that has been focused upon in research is that of neural development. During early prenatal neural development, the brain takes its initial shape as well as forms neurons which create a foundation for future neural development. To guide this development, neurons are directed either chemically or by other cells which act as signposts. This guiding allows neurons to form the distinct sections of the brain which include the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain. It is during this formation neuron specialization takes place in that like-minded cells bunch together to process certain forms of information like auditory and visual. It is still controversial amongst researchers how this specialization occurs with some researchers believing that neurons possess a protomap (Rakic, 1988) while others believe that the functions of neurons are decided by the environmental inputs received (OLeary, 1989). While most evidence found points to the latter result, th ere is still much research that needs to be performed (Broderick Blewitt, 2010). During later prenatal brain development, researchers have found that the sensory organs of the fetus have developed enough to receive and interpret information from outside of the mothers womb. One study performed found that fetuses showed recognition to a point when a familiar nursery rhyme was played for the mother carrying the fetus (Decasper, Lecaneut, Busnel, Granier-Deferre, Maugeais, 1994). In another study, researchers sewed one eye shut of several kittens at birth. Several weeks later, the researchers opened the closed eyes and found the kitten had been rendered irreversibly blind in that particular eye (Wiesel Hubel, 1965). This research provided evidence that environmental neural stimulation was important for the neurons to initiate the connections that are needed for sight which, one may assume, would be the same for hearing as well (Broderick Blewitt, 2010). After birth, researchers have found that most neural development is associated with the creation of synapses rather than the production of more neurons as well as a pruning of arbitrary neurons. This production and pruning of synapses and neurons is a result of both the introduction of chemical substances to the neurons which promote synaptic growth and the sensory information introduced to the neurons as a result of infant actions and environmental factors. As this sensory information is introduced, synapses are formed to accommodate this new information. Greenough and Black (1992) discussed how during this period, two types of synapses are created which are experience-expectant and experience-dependant. Experience-expectant synapses are synapses that are overproduced because they are synapses that have occurred regularly within the evolution of the species. It is when these synapses are not stimulated that problems such as what was discussed above with the kittens occur. The format ion of experience-dependant synapses, as the name would suggest, is dependant upon the amount of stimulation available from the experiences of the infant. Researchers have found that stimulating and complex environments have positive effects upon the growth of experience-dependant synapses in rat pups and other mammals (Kolb, Gibb, Robinson, 2003). The branching points that are left after this process are a direct result of genetics, conditions of the prenatal period, nutrition, and the infants experiences and environmental experiences after birth. Cognitive Development The next developmental area on which this manuscript shall focus is that of cognitive development. During infancy, one area researchers have focused upon is an infants ability to remember and recall. Researchers have found that infants as young as three-days-old suck harder on pacifiers when they hear their mothers voice as opposed to that of a stranger indicating a sense of recognition on the infants part (DeCasper Fifer, 1980). This recognition has been shown to improve throughout infancy. A newborns recognition period has been found to fade after a few minutes or seconds (DeCasper Spence, 1986) while, in other studies, three-month-olds have been shown to give recognition after several months (Bahrick Pickens, 1995). Likewise, recall has been shown to increase dramatically once it begins. Studies have shown that infants display recall of simple actions as early as nine months (Meltzhoff, 1988). Further studies have shown that 11-month-olds may recall simple actions for as long a s three months and 20-month-olds may recall more complex actions for as long as a year later (Bauer, 2006). Research has also been preformed on cognitive development during an individuals preschool years. One area of study included the childs understanding of numbers. For example, Antell and Keating (1983) allowed a five-month-old to watch as they placed a doll behind a screen and also as they added one additional doll. The infants displayed surprise if there was one doll present when the screen was removed while those that saw two were not. This would indicate that newborns have some knowledge of addition and subtraction. Another study by Gelman and Gallistel (1978) taught children to pick a plate with a larger number of items between two plates each with a differing quantity of items. After the researchers changed the way the items were arranged on the plate, the children expressed surprise at the change but were still able to correctly choose the plate with the larger number of items. A more recent study by Sigler and Ramani (2008) found that children who were introduced to number-based board games displayed a greater ability to correctly estimate a number on a number line than those who played games that did not include numbers. These studies give evidence for both the nature and nurture sides of the debate. Emotional Development The last developmental area focused upon within this manuscript is that of emotional development. Currently, researchers disagree upon the initial development of emotions. One argument is that an infant is born with a set of basic emotions directly related to the neural processes that are related to the emotional expression of the infant (Izard, 2004). For example, if an infant looks angry, then it is angry. In contradiction to this theory, Sroufe (1996) believes that emotions start as undifferentiated responses that develop into differentiated responses which then develop into an emotional repertoire. Sroufe argues that emotions start this way because infants lack the cognitive processes with which to assign emotional experiences. Both theories give indication of genetic origins of an individuals emotions. As emotional development continues, researchers have found that infants learn how to moderate their emotions for different situations. For example, during one study by Jahromi, Putnam, and Stifter (2004) on infants emotional responses to inoculations, the researchers observed as mothers of two-month-olds soothed their infants. The researchers found that as the infants grew older the intensity and duration of the infants crying decreased which indicates an increasing emotional control as infants grow older. The researchers believed that the change in the emotional control came about to a degree from the mothers interaction with the infant. Another study, by Tronick, Als, and Brazelton (1980), observed the exchange as mothers either responded positively or negatively towards their infants emotions. During the exchanges the mother was instructed to respond positively to the infants emotions which garnered a positive emotional reaction from the infant. The mother was then instructed to stop responding to the infant that garnered what researchers referred to as other-directed coping behaviors which are facial expressions and vocalizations designed to try and get the mother to resume their previous actions. As the mother continued this action the baby became frustrated and took part in what the researchers referred to as self-coping behaviors such as thumb sucking and rocking. This research provides evidence that an infants adult caregiver provides critical support during an infants development of emotional self regulation (Broderick Blewitt, 2010). Gene Expression When discussing human development, the question of why certain genes express themselves while others do not is, many times, brought to the forefront. Each gene is made up of alleles that a child receives from both their mother and their father. Alleles may be dominant or recessive. If an infant receives two dominant or two recessive alleles, the infant will display those characteristics. Sometimes, in the case of two dominant alleles, alleles express codominance such as in the case of a dominant Type A blood allele and dominant Type B blood allele the infant will express Type AB blood. If an infant receives one dominant and one recessive gene, the infant will display the characteristics of the dominant allele. For example, if a child receives a recessive allele for red hair from both parents, then the infant will develop red hair. If the same child had received a dominant allele for brown hair from one of the parents, the child would have developed with brown hair. This phenomenon ma y also be used to explain why certain genetic disorders express themselves when they do such as the defective recessive allele for sickle-cell anemia or the defective dominant allele for progeria (Broderick Blewitt, 2010). Nature and Nurture Off Setting One would assume that, based upon the recent evidence that development is affected by both nature and nurture, that, in certain situations, one may be used to off set a deficiency in the other. The results provided in the following studies offer evidence supporting the phenomenon of epigenesis which is the control of genetic expression through correlation of both environmental and genetic factors (Broderick Blewitt, 2010). One study by Caspi, McClay, Moffitt, Mill, Martin, Craig, et. al. (2002) conducted to find out how different MAOA alleles, which release the enzymes controlling production of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, affect childrens susceptibility to the negative effects of abusive environments in the early years of life. The researchers found that in individuals that had experienced early child abuse, there was a link between the low MAOA allele and aggression. Likewise, in individuals that had not experienced abuse as a child, there was no correlation between the production of MAOA and aggression. Reiss and Neiderhiser (2000) discussed how some irritable children appear to inherit some qualities such as irritability from their parents which evokes a hostile environment from those around them only reinforcing their irritable tendencies. They further discussed how these tendencies may be off set by environmental circumstances that do not sustain their irritable behavior. Results such as those provided by this research along with many others shed light upon one of the many possibilities unlocked by the further research of the nature and nurture controversy. Conclusion The nature versus nurture controversy has been strongly debated within the discipline of developmental psychology for many years. This manuscript cited many studies which have given evidence to the degree of influence both nature and nurture has on the neural, cognitive, and emotional development of an individual. From the results of these studies, it is easy to see that development is impacted by both nature and nurture in their own unique ways. Studies have even shown that it may be possible to off set certain deficiencies in genetics with environmental aspects or vice versa. The results of these studies provide important insight into the behavior of an individual, how they may have developed that way, and how that particular form of development may be reversed or avoided in others. There is no doubt that as the depth of research into the nature versus nurture controversy grows those within the psychological community, as well as numerous other disciplines, will be able to assist a larger number of individuals with developmental problems with increasing levels of accuracy.

The Debate Concerning the Legalization of Marijuana :: Legalization Marijuana Drugs essays papers

The Debate Concerning the Legalization of Marijuana The debate over the legalization of marijuana is long standing and will continue indefinitely for years to come. Both sides of this issue are passionate in their positions and provide strong arguments to support their stands. After reviewing all the information, I understand each argument but I feel strongly that it would do our country more good than harm to decriminalize marijuana. Aside from what the government would like you to think, there are actually positive effects that come from the use of marijuana. Perhaps the most popular current controversy dealing with the ongoing war on drugs is legalizing marijuana for medical purposes. As of August 1999, five western states - Alaska, Arizona, California, Oregon and Washington - passed laws legalizing the medical use of marijuana. Over the past two decades, more than 20 states and the District of Colombia have passed measures recognizing marijuana’s therapeutic value, but those did not authorize cultivation as the new measures do. Some states have made progress towards helping the chronically ill, but those in other states who are experiencing the same symptoms and dying from the same diseases deserve the same treatments. It may be a slow process, but we can only hope that every other state cares enough about their people to give them the best therapy for their illness as well. Jeff Jones, executive director and co-founder of the Oakland Cannabis Buyer’s Cooperative, remembers being 14 years old and watching his father die an agonizing death from kidney cancer. â€Å"Exactly four months after my dad passed away, I heard on CNN about Judge Young’s recommendation that marijuana should be made available for treating things like chemotherapy-induced nausea. I’ll tell you the message I got: that the federal government had been withholding valuable medicine and was indifferent to the suffering of its citizens.

George Westinghouse’s Biography

Most people know the name Westinghouse as the name of an appliance, but where did the name come from? Many people may not know that George Westinghouse was not only an inventor, but a visionary. George Westinghouse's many inventions fed the Industrial Revolution that swept through America in the latter part of the nineteenth century. The Industrial Revolution brought many changes to the United States. Even though America was progressing, many ill effects were brought on by this expansion. Westinghouse was one of the Industrialist that actually cared about the many problems he saw in urban America. Westinghouse, at the age of forty-two, could no longer ignore â€Å"the evils of social upheaval created by too rapid industrial development†(Levine, 2). George Westinghouse wanted something done, but it looked as if he was the only one that would do it. George Westinghouse had influenced many areas of his era and ours. His many inventions, his good-willed policy toward his work! ers and his business practices have affected all of us; but nothing will compare to the influences that he left on our country's upper-class – the concept that they had a responsibility toward the society that had made them who they were. George Westinghouse was born eight of ten children into a middle class family on October 6, 1846. Westinghouse's father ran a small machine shop in Schendectady, NY, that manufactured mostly farm implements; as a result, Westinghouse was introduced to the world of machines at a very early age. Due to curiosities he found during the Civil War, in which he served in both the Northern Army and the Navy, Westinghouse invented a rotary steam engine. At age nineteen, this was his first patented invention; however, the design proved to be impractical. Despite his troubles, Westinghouse went on to invent a device for placing derailed railroad cars back on their tracks. The next year, Westinghouse was riding on a train that was suddenly brought to a stop to avoid a wrecked train on the tracks ahead. The brakes that were in use on trains around the world at this time were operated manually. Westinghouse knew that there must be a safer and quicker way to stop a train. After observing rock drills, that used compressed air to drill tunnels through mountains, Westinghouse wondered if the use of compressed air could be applied to brakes. This led to one of Westinghouse's most famous and most influential inventions ever. Westinghouse did not know it, but he was on his way to changing the course of the nation. However, at age twenty two, his new air brake and he got little attention. â€Å"If I understand you, young man, you propose to stop a railroad train with wind. I have no time to listen to such nonsense,† said Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt, one of the most powerful railroad owners of the time (Compton's,4). Finally, on a small railroad outside of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Westinghouse was able to try out his new air brake. On the trial run, the train came to a crossing where a farmer's wagon had broken down. Upon seeing this, the locomotive's engineer applied the new braking system. Too everyone's surprise, the train was jolted to a halt; furthermore, the train was stopped yards in front of the farmer's wagon. Even though almost everyone did fall out of their seat, this was the beginning of Westinghouse's influence on the world. Eventually, the Railroad Safety Act of 1893 would â€Å"make air brakes compulsory on all U. S. trains†(Britannica, 6). At this point, Westinghouse established the Westinghouse Air Brake Company. By 1869, already, Westinghouse's success was almost guaranteed. George Westinghouse's next frontier was railroad signaling. With the ever increasing use and expansion of railroads, signaling became a major problem. He created a signaling system using compressed air and electricity; thus, the Union Switch and Signal Company was founded in 1882. Indeed, Westinghouse helped the railroads greatly. With his railroad inventions, railroads became safer; accordingly, leading to the instillation of railroad passengers with confidence. He also created a more profitable operation for the railroads. The bigger profits that were made by the railroad barons, the more they invested and the faster the Industrial Revolution took place. In this fast growing economy, Westinghouse, who was now financially stable, started to tinker with electricity and natural gas. With a well drilled in his yard, Westinghouse developed and marketed a system for the control and distribution of natural gas in Pittsburgh. Today's natural gas industry â€Å"owes its existence to Mr. Westinghouse†(Shumaker, 4). Using the knowledge gained from his work in natural gas, Westinghouse developed a theory for the distribution of electricity. He imported both a motor and its inventor, Nikola Tesla, from Europe. With the help of Tesla and three American engineers, Westinghouse developed a new electrical transformer that allowed electricity to be carried over long distances; however, Westinghouse's design used alternating current, while such people as Thomas Edison used and were promoting direct current electricity. This started the â€Å"Battle of the Currents†, as it was called (Corporate, 1). The advocates and financiers, led by Edison, of the DC system immediately tried to discredit Westinghouse's use of the AC system as soon as his Alternating Current components were made available on the market. These people charged that AC power was a menace to society. As if they did not do enough already to deface Westinghouse, they successfully had the state of New York install a Westinghouse AC generator as the official means of executing death sentences. These charges were untrue; therefore, they were insufficient in the suppressment of the use of AC power. AC power was given credibility when Westinghouse won the contract to light the Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1893. It was said to be a â€Å"dazzling spectacle of a quarter of a million lights that stole the show†. Reflecting the â€Å"Battle of the currents†, Nikola Tesla later wrote, â€Å"George Westinghouse was, in my opinion, the only man on this globe who could take my alternating-current system under the circum! stances then existing and win the battle against prejudice and money power. He was one of the world's true noblemen, of whom America may well be proud and to whom humanity owes an immense debt of gratitude† (Corporate, 1) . On January 8, 1886, with a stroke of the Governor of Pennsylvania's pen, the Westinghouse Electric Company was granted a charter. This company, which would turn out to be the most important of George Westinghouse's many companies, had two-hundred employees and was located in a rented building in Pittsburgh's Garrison Alley Section. By this point in his life, Westinghouse had founded a few other companies. His air brake company had been expanded to France, England and Germany. This idea of a company going world-wide was relatively new. This led a surge of American companies to expand beyond the United States; American influence was being spread around the world. Westinghouse had also founded a machine shop in Pittsburgh in 1881. Westinghouse was very different from most of the other American Industrialist. From the start, Westinghouse was not motivated by money or power. He was motivated by knowing that his inventions and other work would be used to help mankind. Within two years after the Westinghouse Electric Company was founded, the company had grown from the original two-hundred employees to more than three thousand employees by 1888. By 1890, the Westinghouse Electric Company sales totaled four million dollars; Westinghouse had also installed more than three-hundred electrical generators including Niagara Falls, by this time. Westinghouse's business practices were very different than the business practices of they day. Westinghouse clearly was not a businessman, yet because of his dreams, he successfully ran his businesses in a way that baffled many businessmen. From the start, Westinghouse was concerned with the welfare of his employees. His employees were his prime consideration in any business decision. Westinghouse's workers had a six day, fifty-five hour work week. This work week included five ten hour days, Monday through Friday, and a five hour day on Saturday. It seemed strange to other employers of the time to give employees a half-day on Saturday, but this was part of Westinghouse's philosophy. Another benefit of working for Westinghouse was the pension plan. One of the earliest known, Westinghouse provided a pension for each of his workers. The employees of Westinghouse's businesses also received medical coverage. If an employee fell sick or was injured, he and his family would receive money from the compensation fund to live, and the finest medical services available would be given to the worker. A Veteran Employees Association was formed. Any employee with twenty years or more of service could join. This evolv! ed into the formation of a Grievance Committee made up of three shop men and three management personnel. The Grievance Committee would form to resolve such issues as the following: working conditions, working methods, and limits of the workers. Westinghouse's Grievance Committee set the path for labor reform in America. Westinghouse revolutionized the way the American employee worked; hence, Westinghouse was received as the best boss in Pittsburgh. Consequently, he won the resentment of the other employers in Pittsburgh and eventually the country. Westinghouse became famous to every citizen by a means different than his inventions. Westinghouse actually created his own town. Westinghouse became perplexed with the problems that he saw in Pittsburgh; The town had grew from a small city to a booming industrial mecca-center filled with smoky factories and pollution filled avenues. He watched the people work long hours, many were immigrants and others were Native Americans in search of a decent living; furthermore, they came home at night to horrible run down homes where sickly children played in piles of rubbish and rarely attended school. Crime, disease and alcoholism were becoming the image of the industrial world. Westinghouse knew that it could be better than this. He knew that all this progress was not for the working class to become illiterate, diseased and delinquent and for the rich to become isolated and forgetful of what they see. George Westinghouse wondered why nobody did anything about it. Politicians ! would not address it, the upper class would not mention it, and the workers were too busy in their rat race to care. Westinghouse decided he must take action. Westinghouse began reading up on the problem. He read of experiments in Denmark and Sweden where model communities where being made by business and government officials. Westinghouse knew what he would have to do, but it was a very risky move; nevertheless, George had learned not to be frightened off by bold ideas. George Westinghouse contacted a leading architectural firm and told them â€Å"I want you to design a factory and surround it with a town,†(Levine, 2). He visioned a town of state-of-the-art factories, a research laboratory, good schools, community centers, a hospital and inexpensive houses for the employees. Running water and electricity would be standard. In 1890, the Westinghouse Air Brake Company was completely moved to the new site, called Wilmerding, Pennsylvania. The workshops had the â€Å"most modern lighting, heating, ventilation and safety facilities,†(Levine, 2). Each house in the town had a complete indoor bathroom, electric lighting, and natural gas out! lets for cooking and heating. The houses had a lawn with grass, shrubbery, and trees. The houses were rented to the workers with an option to buy. For the children, there were the following: schools that were brightly decorated to attract them to stay, a community center with gymnasiums, a library and meeting rooms. Westinghouse had really out done himself this time thought the whole country; nevertheless, George Westinghouse felt that he had accomplished his greatest achievement, and indeed he had. Westinghouse's model community sent a silent shock-wave to the upper class society of America. Westinghouse was telling these people that they had a responsibility to society. The age of a two class society was over. The American worker now had rights and had power. It took a decade or two, but Westinghouse's vision of America as an Industrial power eventually took shape with the help of the labor movement. Unfortunately, Westinghouse lost control of most of his companies in the financial panic of 1907; this was mostly due to the negative attitude toward him by other employers, his financial backers and his stockholders. Westinghouse died on March 12, 1914; it was a sad day at the Westinghouse companies. A man who cared, a man who listened, a great man was gone forever. George Westinghouse and his wife Marguerite, to whom he credits his success, are buried in Arlington National Cemetery outside Washington, D. C. Overall, millions, if not billions of people have benefi! ted from his companies, inventions, and his visions. Would you have safe, odorless, and efficient lights in your house; would you see an illuminated advertisement on the highway; or would you have a paid vacation if it was not for George Westinghouse? He invented all those things. How about your pension? The hundred largest pensions in the U. S. â€Å"have assets exceeding two trillion dollars,†(Muhlenkamp, 3). That is something George Westinghouse would have enjoyed to see.

The Ethical Dilemma Of Palliative Care - 1426 Words

Diploma of Nursing Teacher’s name- Rachel Gilder 12 May, 2016 Ethical dilemma essay An ethical dilemma is a difficult situation that usually involves a conflict between moral obligations, in which to obey one would result in disobeying another (Murphy, 1997). Sedation is an ethical dilemma in palliative care because on one side it helps to relieve suffering for patients who are terminally ill and almost at the end of their lives. However, at the same time, sedation is making the patient deprived of certain bioethical principles such as autonomy, the main issue with palliative sedation is that it prohibits the patient from changing his or her decision, once sedation is commenced and informed consent also becomes complex (Cooney, 2005). The writer is in the favour of palliative sedation because it is an effective symptom controlled strategy for the patients who are nearly at the end of their lives. Moreover, it is believed that by providing sedation to a patient induce unconsciousness, which makes the patient completely unaware of the external world and tend to reduce the suffering by considering ethical and moral principles. However, some people think palliative sedation as euthanasia, which cause death because of making the patient deprive of nutrition and hydration while giving sedation. Ethical principles are going to be discussed in this essay such as autonomy, beneficence, non- maleficence and justice. Moreover, this essay also going to put light on current researchShow MoreRelatedEthical Dilemm Ethical And Ethical Dilemmas1610 Words   |  7 PagesEthical dilemma is an issue that has no satisfactory resolution. A conflict between two ethical standards and situations can result in ethical dilemma. The ethical behavior of an individual is determined by the cultural norms and the societal norms. This develops a sense of right and wrong which helps in decision making. 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